The History of Linen: From Ancient Egypt to Modern Fashion 

I. Introduction 

Linen is one of the oldest and most enduring textiles in human history. Made from the flax plant, this natural fiber has been cherished for thousands of years for its remarkable properties: breathability, durability, and elegant drape. It has clothed pharaohs, adorned sacred spaces, outfitted peasants, and walked down haute couture runways.

In ancient civilizations, linen symbolized wealth, purity, and divine favor. Today, it has made a resounding comeback, praised not only for its timeless beauty but also for its sustainability. From religious rituals to modern fashion collections, linen has adapted through ages without ever losing its core appeal.

This article traces the fascinating journey of linen through history—from its ancient roots in early agriculture and its spiritual role in Ancient Egypt, through the classical and medieval periods, to its present-day revival in eco-conscious fashion and home design.

II. The Origins of Linen 

A. Flax Plant Cultivation 

The story of linen begins with flax, one of the earliest cultivated crops known to humankind. This unassuming plant, Linum usitatissimum, has provided fiber for textiles and oil for food and industry since the dawn of agriculture.

Flax domestication dates back more than 10,000 years, with archaeological evidence placing its early cultivation in the Fertile Crescent, particularly in regions that are now Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. However, the earliest evidence of flax fiber use stretches even further back. In prehistoric Georgia, fibers believed to be flax were found in a cave and dated to around 30,000 years ago—likely twisted into cords or threads used for simple textiles or tools. These early humans may not have “cultivated” flax in the modern sense, but they clearly understood its potential.

Flax thrived in temperate climates with well-drained soil, making it an ideal crop in early agricultural societies. It could be harvested with primitive tools and processed using simple techniques like retting (soaking the stalks to loosen the fibers). The long, strong fibers were valued for their smoothness, strength, and ability to absorb dye and moisture.

From these humble beginnings, flax cultivation would spread across continents, becoming an integral part of numerous civilizations.

B. Linen in Ancient Egypt 

If there’s one civilization that elevated linen to divine status, it’s Ancient Egypt. For the Egyptians, linen was more than just a textile—it was a cultural and religious emblem, an economic driver, and a technological achievement.

Symbol of Purity and Wealth 

Linen was associated with purity, light, and holiness in Egyptian society. Because of its white color and fine weave, it was worn by priests during temple rituals and used to wrap mummies for the afterlife. Lenin’s role in burial practices wasn’t just symbolic—it was believed to protect the soul and reflect cleanliness, a virtue prized in religious life.

The wealthier the individual, the finer and more transparent their linen garments. Royalty and elites wore elaborately pleated and intricately folded linen robes that required exceptional skill to produce. Linen became a visual indicator of social class, refinement, and moral standing.

Used for Clothing, Mummification, and Rituals 

Egyptian linen was woven by hand using horizontal ground looms, with spinners—often women—meticulously preparing flax fibers.

 The finished cloth was used in: 

Daily clothing for both men and women, typically light tunics and kilts

Ritual garments for priests and pharaohs 

Shrouds for embalming mummies, with some high-ranking individuals wrapped in hundreds of meters of finely woven linen

Household items, such as bed sheets and wall hangings

Mummies dating back thousands of years have been found wrapped in perfectly preserved linen, testifying to the fabric’s remarkable durability and its sacred role in Egyptian afterlife beliefs.

Linen Production Methods in Ancient Times 

Producing linen was a labor-intensive process that required both patience and precision.

 Here’s how Egyptians typically processed flax into linen:

Harvesting – Flax was pulled (not cut) to preserve the long fibers.

Retting – Stalks were soaked in water or laid in dew to loosen the fibrous material.

Drying and Breaking – The dried stalks were crushed to release the fibers.

Scutching and Hackling – Remaining bits of bark were scraped off, and fibers were combed into soft bundles.

Spinning – Fibers were spun into thread using simple tools like drop spindles.

Weaving – Threads were woven into cloth using looms, often producing fine, tight weaves that rival modern textiles.

Artisans in Egypt were so skilled that some surviving linen cloths have thread counts similar to modern-day bed linens—a staggering achievement for a civilization over 4,000 years old.

Importance in the Egyptian Economy and Daily Life

Linen was so valuable in Egypt that it sometimes functioned as a form of currency. Temple records show that workers were paid in linen, and it was commonly bartered for other goods. State-controlled linen production was a massive industry, with fields of flax and weavers operating in workshops linked to temples and government stores.

Egyptian linen was also a major export. Merchants traded it across the Mediterranean, particularly to civilizations like the Minoans, Phoenicians, and later the Greeks. Its reputation for quality made it a highly sought-after commodity in the ancient world.

In daily life, linen offered a practical advantage in Egypt’s sweltering desert climate. Its breathability, moisture-wicking properties, and lightness made it the perfect fabric for everyday wear, even as it retained its elite and spiritual symbolism.

III. Linen in the Classical World 

Egyptian influence in the wider Mediterranean world also exported the use of linen fabrics to the wardrobes and economies of the classical world. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, to some extent independently from each other, embraced the functionality, beauty, and cultural value of linen. While both civilizations developed their own distinct clothing styles, the uses of linen remained relatively consistent. Linen continued to be the material of choice for daily wear, special ceremonial garments, and utilitarian uses.

A. Ancient Greece 

In Greece, linen dominated Greek clothing during the Classical and Hellenistic periods (circa 5th to 1st century BCE). In the mild Mediterranean climate, linen’s light and breathable nature made it an important choice of fabric for both men and women.

Linen Tunics (Chitons) and Undergarments 

The chiton was a popular garment in Greece, often made from linen. This tunic-like robe, typically made from one or more rectangular pieces of cloth pinned at the shoulders and belted at the waist, was worn by men and women of all ages. While wool was used for heavier garments in colder weather, linen was used for lighter summer wear and in areas with consistently warm climates.

Ancient Greeks also used linen for undergarments, worn underneath heavier outer garments or armor. Linen underclothes were lightweight, soft, and breathable, making them a practical choice for civilians and soldiers alike.

Linen was also used for more elaborate tunics and robes by wealthy citizens and aristocrats. Dyes and decorations were used to denote wealth or status; the smooth texture of linen readily took to dyes, and finished linen garments could be embroidered.

Preferred in Warm Climates for Its Breathability 

In the often hot and dry climate of Greece, linen’s ability to wick away moisture and provide comfort made it a favorite for soldiers, athletes, and laborers. This practical use secured the place of linen not only in the fashion world but also in everyday comfort and survival.

Artistic representations of the era—whether in sculptures, pottery, or frescoes—often depict figures wearing flowing linen robes or garments. Linen in these depictions emphasizes the drape and fall of the fabric and showcases its cultural significance.

B. Ancient Rome 

In the Roman Empire, the textile maintained its popularity and utility. Though wool remained a dominant fiber (especially in cooler climates), linen saw widespread use in clothing, military applications, and maritime endeavors.

Roman Linen Use in Togas and Undergarments 

The toga, the formal draped garment emblematic of Roman citizenship, was generally made from wool. However, Romans commonly wore linen tunics and underclothes beneath their togas or for informal wear. Linen subligaculum (loincloth) and tunica interior (inner tunic) were popular for their comfort and breathability.

Linen was a choice fabric for Roman elites for lighter, more breathable clothing during hot summers. Emperors, senators, and other wealthy Romans frequently donned fine linen in private or during travel, as a mark of luxury and personal refinement.

Linen Sails and Military Applications 

In addition to clothing, linen had military and naval uses throughout the Roman Empire:

Linen sails powered Roman ships, taking advantage of the fiber’s strength and wind-resistance.

Laminated layers of linen were used in some types of Roman armor (linothorax), offering a lighter alternative to metal.

Linen tents provided shelter for Roman soldiers across the empire’s frontiers.

These various uses reflect the linen’s durability and value in the Roman military and mercantile expansion.

Trade and Commerce of Linen Fabric 

Roman production and sale of linen became increasingly commercialized and industrialized. Flax was grown and woven in several provinces, especially Gaul (modern-day France), Hispania (Spain), and Egypt (a key supplier).

Linen became both a domestic necessity and a trade good, as it was bartered and sold throughout the empire’s trade network. Markets in cities such as Rome, Alexandria, and Athens offered linen in various qualities from coarse functional textiles to finely woven, decorative cloth for the aristocracy.

Roman authors such as Pliny the Elder wrote about the qualities of linen and documented its uses. The production and sale of linen were also taxed and regulated, indicating its economic importance.

IV. Medieval Europe and Linen Production 

As the fall of the Roman Empire gave way to medieval kingdoms, the uses of linen largely retained their place in society, though the scale and scope of its production became less commercial and more domestic and regional. The Middle Ages wove linen into the very fabric of everyday life both literally and figuratively.

A. From Household Craft to Trade Good 

In the early medieval period, linen production first saw a rise in Northern Europe as household production. Most peasant households grew their own flax, which their women spun and wove into fabric. Used for sheets, towels, clothing, undergarments, and head coverings, linen was a practical necessity for every household.

Linen Weaving as a Domestic Task and Later a Cottage Industry

As early as the late medieval period, the process of converting flax into cloth remained the same as it had been for centuries. 

Weaving linen became a seasonal domestic task in rural communities: soaking, drying, combing, spinning, and weaving. 

Spinning wheels and hand looms were used in most homes. However, as the Middle Ages progressed, the development of towns and trade guilds saw the rise of a cottage industry. Artisans specializing in particular aspects of the process (spinners, weavers, bleachers, finishers) would work independently, laying the foundation for pre-industrial textile guilds.

Regional Centers: Ireland, Belgium (Flanders), France 

Certain regions developed a reputation for excellence in linen production by the High Middle Ages (1000–1300 CE):

Flanders (modern-day Belgium) was a source of fine, white linen, often used for tablecloths, ecclesiastical garments, and fashionable clothing.

Ireland would become a leader of linen production in the later medieval and early modern periods, its cool, damp climate being ideal for growing flax.

France, especially in Normandy and Brittany, would also produce a great deal of linen for the European market.

These regions (and many others) became centers of textile trade, supplying linen to much of the continent and beyond. Certain towns even developed legal and commercial frameworks to protect the reputation of their products.

B. Religious and Cultural Significance 

In the medieval period, linen became deeply associated with religious rituals, cultural symbolism, and moral values. This association with purity, humility, and sanctity was reinforced by Christian teachings and the practice of the medieval church.

Linen Used for Altar Cloths, Priest Garments, and Burial Shrouds

Churches and cathedrals across Europe used white linen altar cloths, vestments, and communion cloths. Priests wore linen albs, simple white garments worn under their liturgical robes, symbolizing the washing away of sin and readiness for divine service.

Linen was also the preferred fabric for burial shrouds, especially among the pious and the nobility. Wrapping the deceased in white linen symbolized Christian ideals of spiritual rebirth and resurrection.

Detailed records of medieval monasteries list inventories of linen items, from choir robes to napkins, all kept clean through diligent laundering. The care and maintenance of these linen items reflect their elevated status in both sacred and secular life.

Linen’s Association with Cleanliness and Virtue 

Clean linen garments came to be a marker of moral virtue and civility in an era when bathing was not commonplace. Wealthy individuals would change their linen underclothes frequently as a demonstration of cleanliness and politeness. “To keep a clean shirt” became more than an issue of hygiene, but of social respectability.

Linen also played a role in sumptuary laws, which regulated clothing based on class. Coarser linen was used for lower classes, while finer grades were usually the province of the wealthy or clergy.

Linen’s symbolic association with purity, chastity, order, and godliness are found in medieval literature and religious texts. This symbolic association ensured its continued use well into the Renaissance period.

V. Renaissance to Industrial Revolution 

The Renaissance, scientific revolution, Age of Exploration and Industrial Revolution in Europe were not only an era of groundbreaking scientific and artistic achievement but also one of fundamental social and economic change. Advances in technology, international trade and colonial expansion brought new products and influences from around the world, and fabrics like linen were right at the heart of these developments. In this section, we’ll see how technical improvements to linen processing, growing international trade routes and the colonization of other continents by European powers helped to further embed linen into European economic life and social consciousness.

A. Technical Improvements to Flax Processing 

In Europe, the Renaissance (14th–17th century) marked not only a rebirth of the arts and sciences but also a resurgence in industry and craftsmanship. The domestic production of linen and other textiles, which had been conducted since medieval times as a largely home-based, hand-processing affair, was also subject to the influence of new tools and methods.

Spinning Wheel 

One of the most impactful developments to linen production in this time was the spinning wheel, which had been introduced to Europe by the late 13th century but did not become widespread until the Renaissance. The spinning wheel mechanized the process of twisting together the short lengths of thread spun by a drop spindle. With a spinning wheel, longer sections of thread could be spun at once, and multiple people in a workshop could work at the same time, increasing the speed and volume of thread production.

In places like Flanders and Northern Italy, workshops that specialized in thread spinning adopted their own improved wheel designs, adapted to the longer and finer flax fibers.

Other Improvements to Linen Processing and Weaving 

In addition to the spinning wheel, other innovations during this period made flax processing easier and more efficient and improved the final quality of linen:

Better retting methods:

Water retting and dew retting were developed that could be controlled and applied more quickly to yield better results.

Mechanized scutching and hackling: 

Tools for breaking and combing flax were improved to make these steps less labor-intensive.

Loom advancements: 

The horizontal treadle loom gained in popularity and allowed for greater speed and pattern complexity in weaving.

These innovations meant that finer-quality linen was produced on a larger scale. As more linen thread became available, more and finer-quality cloth could be produced to meet the needs of a growing European market and the ever-expanding demand of trade.

B. Rise of Linen as a Commercial Textile 

As European demand for linen products grew and the production methods improved, linen had become the premier commercial textile in Europe by the 16th century. Production of linen was no longer just a home- or monastery-based activity. The fabric and associated processes now involved networks of artisans, merchants and guilds across the continent.

Linen Guilds, Trade Routes and Textile Markets 

Production of linen in the 16th century was more and more dominated by guilds. Guilds were organizations or associations of artisans that set and policed standards, controlled the training of new workers and protected the interests of their members. In cities like Ghent, Bruges, Lyon and Augsburg, guilds had developed to make sure that all linen produced there was to a certain standard, training new workers in established techniques.

Linen guilds and the merchants they were associated with were active in international trade fairs and markets, and their goods were shipped across Europe and beyond. Linen and flax products were shipped raw, bleached or finished, and different grades could be assigned pricing.

Raw or “brown” linen was shipped as a rough, unfinished fabric. Linen produced in Flanders and France was known for its high quality and durability. “White” linen was the most highly valued and was usually bleached for weeks or months in bleaching fields.

Trade routes took linen from Russia to Portugal and as far as the Ottoman Empire. Linen exports from England and the Netherlands were also highly prized for their quality and relatively low cost.

Clothing and Household Goods 

Linen in early modern Europe (15th–18th century) was ubiquitous in people’s lives. In the 16th century, it had come to be expected as an undergarment for most people in Europe.

 It was: 

Worn as an undergarment by all classes of people in Europe

A common shirt or chemise worn next to the skin

Used for household linens like tablecloths, bed linens and curtains

Numerous household inventory lists from wealthy European households often have dozens of items of linen, ranging from simple workaday cloths to elaborately embroidered napkins or decorative bed drapes.

In a pre-industrial world where washing clothes and fabric was a significant effort, the ease of cleaning and maintaining linen made it a necessity.

Linen as a Symbol of Class and Status

As with earlier times, finer, embroidered or decorated linens were a sign of social status and refinement. Elaborately pleated linen clothing or ruffled sleeves held stiff with starch were a symbol of European aristocracy or upper-class lifestyle. Portraits of the time often show the subjects in these forms of highly-decorated linen.

Sumptuary laws were still in effect in some places, dictating who was allowed to wear which linen grades or what amount of ornamentation was allowed.

The very term “white collar” dates to this time. It refers to the white linen collars that professionals, academics and other members of the upper class wore to set them apart from the “blue collar” or manual working classes.

VI. Linen in the Colonial Era 

European colonial expansion in the 16th through 19th centuries introduced linen production and consumption on a global scale. Linen was brought to new lands as both a refined product of European manufacturing and craftsmanship, but also as a commodity that was used within and even depended upon systems of exploitation, trade expansion and forced labor.

A. Linen and Global Trade 

The 16th through 19th centuries saw the rise of European colonialism and the establishment of overseas colonies in the Americas, Africa and Asia. As the colonial powers—Britain, France, the Netherlands, Spain and others—expanded their economic and military presence in the world, linen became both a key export and a useful textile for settlers and military life in other climates and cultures.

Exportation of European Linen to the Colonies 

European linen, particularly from Ireland, France and Flanders, was exported in bulk to colonial territories and used both in everyday life and for institutional use:

Clothing and bedding for settlers and colonial officials

Clothing in tropical areas: 

Linen was preferred to wool in warmer climates

Tropical military uniforms: 

Lightweight linen shirts were more tolerable than wool

Household textiles: 

Linen sheets, curtains, tablecloths 

Clothing and Household Goods 

Linen production in the American colonies developed as a cottage industry, with settlers in New England and mid-Atlantic states growing flax and processing it into linen cloth. Farmers needed and wore linen clothing as part of their daily lives, as it was hard-wearing and washable.

In India, while cotton textiles were more common and valued, European-imported linens were used in colonial trade and fashion. British officials and merchants in India were often seen wearing fine European linen. Linen would be imported in bulk for personal and business use, and Indian artisans were sometimes commissioned to add embroidery or embellishment to European linen goods.

Linen in the Colonies (Especially America and India)

In both cases, linen also became part of the material and social fabric of colonial society. Linen production and trade became part of economic systems and personal and national identities in the colonies.

B. Linen and Slavery 

Of course, the full story of linen during this period must also mention its links with slavery and systemic oppression. Linen itself was used as a commodity in slave economies and a material for clothing the enslaved themselves.

Linen in the Clothing of Enslaved People 

In North America, the Caribbean and elsewhere, linen, particularly coarser linen, was one of the materials most commonly used to clothe enslaved individuals. Enslaved people, especially those held on plantation properties in the south, were provided with clothing by their owners. 

Linen was chosen as a practical, readily-available material for plantation owners and overseers because it was:

Durable 

Inexpensive when produced en masse 

Breathable in hot, humid climates 

Enslaved individuals themselves were responsible for the maintenance and repair of their clothing, which was often minimal. These garments were deliberately coarse, uncomfortable and minimal. They served only to cover the body for work and movement, but not for anything more in the way of personal expression or adornment. “Negro cloth” was what it was. 

Clothing for enslaved people was mass-produced, in large lots and cut to a standard size to be distributed as needed. Plantation owners expected slaves to receive only one or two new outfits per year, if that many.

In some cases, linen (among other fabrics) was used for clothing of enslaved people in a triangular trade: 

Cheap linen was traded in Africa in return for human captives, who were then sent to the Americas where they were forced to produce commodities like sugar and cotton. Those were returned to Europe, some of which might be used to produce more linen.

In the American South and Caribbean, flax was also grown and processed by enslaved people in these same grueling conditions that had been used for centuries in Europe.

The same was true even in parts of the north like Pennsylvania and New Jersey, where flax growing was a major part of the economy. Indentured servants and enslaved laborers were used to work in these areas as well. Many of these people gained textile skills that allowed them to participate in the abolition movement and start their own textile production after emancipation.

VII. Linen in the 19th and 20th Centuries 

The 19th and 20th centuries were a time of upheaval for textiles worldwide. The Industrial Revolution brought large-scale mechanization and new textile technologies to a craft industry that had been localized, small-scale, and manual in most of the world until then. Linen was no exception. It faced pressures and competition from cheaper, faster, more adaptable materials like cotton and synthetics. But it also benefited from new looms and processes, and rebranded as a specialty fabric. As the most common fabric in many cultures disappeared, it became a lifestyle statement of quality and prestige for a select few.

A. Industrialization and Decline 

Handwoven to Machine-Produced Linen 

Mechanical spinning and weaving machines were introduced in Europe in the late 18th century, with widespread adoption by the early 19th century. On the positive side, this led to faster, more efficient linen production that could scale beyond the cottage industry and regional craft guilds.

Production moved to factories in Belfast (Northern Ireland), Flanders, and Normandy, among other linen-growing regions. Belfast in particular became world-famous as a center of large-scale industrial linen production and by the mid-1800s had been dubbed Linenopolis.

Yet mechanization wasn’t all smooth sailing. Flax is coarser and more brittle than cotton, with short, highly variable fibers that resist combing and breaking. Early spinning and weaving machines had difficulty handling flax, requiring modifications and slowing production. Cotton fiber was easier to handle and adapt to automated looms, giving cotton a decisive early advantage over linen.

Cotton, A Cheaper Alternative 

For many of the same reasons, cotton fiber and fabric were cheaper to produce than linen. American cotton plantations grew in the South, India, and Egypt. The long cotton fibers could be grown at a huge scale, and the plants were easier to tend and harvest than flax.

Cotton was softer, stronger, and more flexible than linen. The fabric was easier to bleach and dye, and cotton’s lower production cost made it an attractive alternative to linen for most mass-market applications.

Over the 19th century, cotton completely replaced linen in most domestic and work-wear uses:

Day and night clothes 

Underwear and linens 

Kitchen and tablecloths, napkins, towels 

Linen became labor-intensive, high-cost, and a luxury. 

Declining Flax Farming in Europe 

Demand for linen fell drastically, with knock-on effects to the cultivation of flax as well. Fields of flax were uprooted for more lucrative crops or more widely adaptable ones like cotton. This was most severe in Ireland, which became a major supplier of linen to Britain.

In the British Isles, and in much of France and Germany, flax growing and fabric production fell by the late 19th century to a fraction of what it had been during the 18th century.

B. Linen’s Niche Survival 

Linen’s long-term survival and continued usage in niche markets has been due to its specialty uses in 20th century:

Summer Clothing, Formal Attire, Tableware 

The older associations of linen didn’t die off completely. Its breathability, temperature regulation, and crisp drape continued to make it a favorite for warm-weather clothing and special-occasion tableware:

Summer suits, pants 

Linen blouses, shirts, and camisoles 

Designer tablecloths, napkins, handkerchiefs 

Europe continued producing luxury linen goods for export to the US and other markets. The Italian and French labels, in particular, maintained a reputation for stylish yet subdued elegance, good enough for resort wear and upscale lifestyles.

Military Uniforms and Canvas Bags in WWI and WWII

Perhaps most importantly, linen was put back to use as a cheap, light material in the first World War and then World War II. 

Linen’s use by militaries in Europe and North America included:

Uniform components, undershirts, pants 

Canvas bags, mailbags, tents 

Medical bandages, slings, bedding 

Linen’s absorbency, strength, and breathability were key for uniforms, especially in summer. Supply chain and logistics also made use of flax products, with tarpaulins and bags made of coarser, heavier linens. Both civilian and military demand gave flax a lifeline into the late 20th century, even as it retreated from the high street.

VIII. The Modern Revival of Linen 

Since the 1970s, linen has been undergoing a curious renaissance, re-emerging as a desirable fabric both in mass-market clothing and among specialty brands.

A. Linen in Contemporary Fashion 

Cycles of fashion often return to previous decades for influence. But linen has come back strongly as natural and sustainable materials enter into the fashion zeitgeist.

Linen in Eco-Friendly Fashion Brands 

Clothing labels in the organic, eco-friendly, and high-end sectors are embracing linen as a signature sustainable material, frequently producing linen collections and featuring them in marketing campaigns.

Brands like Eileen Fisher, Reformation, Patagonia, and Amour Vert regularly include linen as an eco-friendly feature:

Made without pesticides or much water 

Biodegradable, recyclable, compostable 

Cooling and breathable for summer and hot weather

Artisan or small-batch production labels often use linen as a raw material, with ties to local producers and transparent supply chains.

Natural fabrics including linen are a common feature of curated online shops and Etsy sellers.

Linen in Runway Collections and Summer Fashion 

Linen has become a mainstay of modern fashion for spring and summer wear, featured prominently on runways and in mainstream retail. Dresses, shirts, shorts, pants, jackets, and even coats are all made from linen. Durable, lightweight, breathable, with a distinctive texture that lends itself to relaxed elegance, linen has been built into many brand collections. This includes high-end designers like Chanel, Max Mara, and Ralph Lauren.

Recent changes to the fabric make it even more appealing than in the past:

Washings and enzyme treatments for a softer hand

Anti-wrinkle treatments and elastane blends for more comfort

In addition to white and cream, linens are now available in:

Pastel colors 

Earthy and natural colors 

Dark, opaque colors 

Top fashion brands often pair linen with a Mediterranean-chic aesthetic, breezy coastal living, and the organic luxury of the natural world.

Linen Blends, Finishes, and Processes 

In addition to blending with: 

Cotton for softness, more availability 

Tencel or modal for added drape and silkiness

Elastane or other synthetics for stretch and shape

There are a number of special finishing processes that improve linen:

Stone-washing for a softer hand 

Enzyme washing for softness and no-starch feel 

Air-washing, which produces a soft, matte finish 

B. Sustainable and Ethical Appeal 

By far the most important part of linen’s re-emergence in the modern age is its eco-friendly credentials. Today’s world of sustainable sourcing, ethical production, transparent supply chains, and thoughtful consumerism are all catnip for natural, eco-conscious fabrics.

Biodegradable, Low-Water Crop with Minimal Chemicals 

The plants themselves are: 

A lower water crop, especially when compared to cotton

Easy to grow in nutrient-poor, cool-weather conditions 

Capable of growing with little or no pesticides

Require no added irrigation, fertilizers, or pesticides 

Linen fabric is a highly eco-friendly choice: 

one of the most sustainable, given that it biodegrades and composts at end-of-life, unlike synthetic fabrics. Its footprint during production is equally light, a big part of what makes it attractive.

Consumer Interest in Natural Fabrics 

Consumers are increasingly concerned with sustainability, overproduction, and transparency in fashion. 

This has led to: 

Increased interest in natural fabrics that breathe, are cooler, and require less processing

A shift away from fast fashion, towards high-quality, longer-wear items

Closer attention to supply chains, location of production, and labor issues

Linen fits all these niches as one of the most eco-friendly and ethically produced options available, and has been worked into many mid- to high-end brand catalogues.

Retailers promote it heavily during the spring and summer months as an eco-friendly, breathable, and natural alternative to more conventional synthetics and cotton.

C. Linen in Home and Lifestyle Products 

As with clothing, linen is making a major comeback in the world of home goods, lifestyle, and interior design.

Bedding, Curtains, Upholstery, Modern Home Trends 

Interior design has similarly seen a linen revival, from curtains to cushions to bedding and upholstery. 

Linen is on-trend with the following popular interior styles:

Scandinavian design 

Wabi-sabi and Japandi 

Natural, organic or earth-tone aesthetics 

Its texture, matte white coloring, and light weight have become part of a conscious interior design movement.

Linen bedding in particular is highly prized for its cooling qualities and upscale feel. Linen curtains offer privacy, breathability, and a traditional finish, while stonewashed linen upholstery can be long-lasting and easy to care for.

Slow-living and Minimalist Aesthetic 

The slow-living movement of the last 20 years has had linen as a core fabric. Blogs, Instagram accounts, and influencers promoting minimalism, natural living, sustainability, and decluttering all prominently feature linen clothing, napkins, tableware, blankets, and other lifestyle products.

Its propensity to wrinkle, matte white appearance, and muted earth tones give it an air of natural authenticity, the antithesis of a shiny, cheaply-made disposable culture.

Linen as a Lifestyle Choice 

In both fashion and lifestyle goods, linen has become a material to signal not just taste, but values. By choosing linen, one can signal beliefs such as:

Sustainability 

Environmental consciousness 

Rejecting of fast fashion and consumerism 

Minimalism and wabi-sabi 

Minimalism 

Natural beauty 

Simple, muted luxury 

In addition to a fabric, linen has become an identity.

IX. Cultural Significance and Symbolism Over Time 

Beyond a history of practical uses, linen is also a rich tapestry of metaphors, meanings, and cultural identity. From ancient Egypt to contemporary eco-conscious movements, it has been attributed with symbolism that goes far beyond its physical properties.

Linen as a Symbol of Purity, Nobility, and Craftsmanship

In various cultures, especially during its early history, linen was a marker of the sacred, the noble, and the pure. Even as its use expanded into common households, these associations persisted and re-emerged.

In the ancient world, linen was often a ceremonial or priestly fabric, whether in Egypt or Greece. The whiteness of linen was seen as a symbol of purity and spiritual cleanliness. As a result, only the highest quality, whitest linen was used for temple rituals or royal garments.

Priests would wear linen robes or tunics, and pharaohs or rulers were mummified in layers of linen. The idea was that linen, in its untouched natural state, was the closest to the divine or eternal.

This reverence for linen as the cloth of nobility and purity carried over into Medieval Europe, especially among the Christian clergy. Priests would wear linen albs under their robes, as a sign of purity. Saints were often depicted in unadorned white linen robes, an indicator of their rejection of worldly trappings.

Linen also became a preferred burial shroud for the same reason. The purity of linen was a reminder of the soul’s return to the natural and the divine order.

Conversely, fine linen garments also became a marker of noble or secular status. Woven or embroidered linen required skill and labor to produce, so the higher the quality or the more transparent, the more expensive. Wealthy or educated men and women would wear crisp linen collars, cuffs, and chemises as a statement of breeding and taste.

Transition from Sacred Use to Everyday Wear and Luxury Status

While retaining its associations with the spiritual or the refined, linen also became an integral part of everyday life over time. 

For the ordinary person, linen could be found throughout the household:

Bedding 

Towels 

Kitchen cloths 

Aprons 

Shirts and undergarments 

Change into clean linen each day was a ritual of hygiene, modesty, and social duty for the upper or emerging middle class.

Linens, due to their long history of production, durability, and association with cleanliness, have also made a comeback in the modern era. Linen clothing has become both an old-world style and a luxury good.

Wrinkled linen suits or shirts have come to connote a more leisurely, upper-class summer aesthetic. Linen tablecloths and napkins are the gold standard for formal dining and weddings.

In homes and among individuals who still save special table linens or clothing for “best”, it is often linen.

Fluid Identity: 

Shifting Between Sacred and Secular, Elite and Essential

It is this unique fluidity of identity and purpose that has allowed linen to stay relevant across cultures and throughout history. It can be both high and low, secular and sacred, elite and necessary.

This chameleon-like ability to adapt to different cultural needs and values has allowed it to continually reinvent itself and survive. Linen has often been described as not just a fabric but a way of life, an approach to the world that values craftsmanship, natural beauty, and an appreciation for the simple and enduring.

Linen in Art, Literature, and Religious Context Through Centuries

Linen’s symbolism is also well documented in art, literature, and of course, religious texts. Artists and writers have often used linen to represent not just an object but an idea or a feeling.

In paintings, linen can often be found draping figures, or taking on its own presence in a scene. In the Renaissance period, for instance, the Virgin Mary would often be shown with delicate linen veils or elaborate lacework. These were not just records of fashion, but of ideals.

Linen stands in for a host of different virtues: purity, humility, status, and so on. In art, literature, and religion, linen becomes a cipher for values that go beyond the material to speak to the spiritual or the symbolic.

X. Timeless Qualities That Ensure Linen’s Longevity 

Beyond its historic and cultural resonance, there are of course the timeless reasons why linen remains an unrivaled material. These include not just the story behind it, but its natural properties that modern synthetics have yet to replicate.

Durability and Comfort 

Above all, linen is long-lasting. It is a remarkably tough material that only gets stronger with repeated washing. This, of course, is precisely what made linen a favored reusable textile for goods from sheets to shirts.

Linen is also comfortable to the touch, lightweight, and soft. It is a good heat conductor and gentle on the skin. Linen becomes more supple with age, which makes it one of the few materials that get better with wear.

Durability and comfort make linen both practical and a preferred lifestyle choice for many.

Climate Adaptability 

This list would be incomplete without the climate adaptability of linen. As a naturally breathable and moisture-wicking material, it has always been ideal for managing body temperature in humid conditions.

Linen dries quickly, resists bacterial growth, and therefore prevents odor. In hot and humid climates, linen feels cool to the touch, which is why it is ideal for summer clothing or bedding.

In the winter, linen can also be woven in heavier blends to provide warmth and comfort. The natural airiness of linen means that even heavier garments do not feel stuffy or heavy. This ability to insulate while still allowing airflow makes linen ideal for all-season use.

As a result, linen has been found all over the world—from Mediterranean seaside towns to northern European farms.

Sophisticated Appearance 

The natural qualities of linen also make it stylish. Its matte, textured finish and natural drape give it a graceful sense of elegance that never goes out of fashion.

The natural wrinkles of linen are no longer seen as a flaw, but as a sign of authenticity. There is an honesty to linen that signals natural over the synthetic, beauty in its original, raw state.

Fashion and home design have both found countless ways to use linen in both formal and casual settings:

White linen feels luxurious and expensive. 

Earthy, natural dyed linens can go with a variety of styles, from rustic to boho to minimal.

Tailored linen can convey confidence and power. 

Flowing linen drapes and loose shirts express ease and informality.

Linen’s natural aesthetic endures as it inspires designers and consumers with its simplicity and understated beauty.

Natural Sustainability Aligning with Modern Values 

Finally, linen fits with many of the values espoused by contemporary consumers.

It ticks all the boxes for environmental friendliness: biodegradable, natural, and low energy processing. Flax requires relatively little water, pesticides, and fertilizers to grow. Almost the entire plant is useful at all stages of its lifecycle.

In addition to being biodegradable, linen also has a long shelf life. It outlasts most of its mass-produced synthetic alternatives by a long margin.

A growing number of consumers are searching for products that are better for the planet and transparent about their production. As such, natural linens are emerging as a way to hold on to what the modern world has lost in its quest for fast fashion or mass production.

Linen is durable, sustainable, beautiful, and can be ethically sourced. These qualities help re-establish linens as not just material for daily use, but as a lifestyle choice.

XI. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

With the resurgence of linen in fashion, home décor, and conscious wardrobes, many have questions about this historic yet futuristic fabric. To help explain its storied past and vibrant present, we’ve compiled these FAQs.

1. When Was Linen First Used? 

Linen is one of the oldest textiles known to human civilization. The earliest archeological evidence for use of flax fibers—the plant that linen is made from—dates back to around 30,000 years ago. Twisted prehistoric flax fibers used for making thread were found in the Caucasus region (modern-day Georgia).

However, linen as a woven cloth is most well-documented in Ancient Egypt, around 5000 BCE. The Egyptians farmed flax in large quantities to make clothing for the general population, religious and priestly cloth, burial wraps, mummies, etc.

In summary, humans have used linen for tens of thousands of years—from prehistory to antiquity. The story of linen is the story of humankind itself, from ancient nomads and Neolithic farmers to global society and a sustainable future.

2. How Did Lenin Become a Symbol of Purity in Ancient Cultures?

A number of practical and symbolic factors have contributed to linen’s reputation for purity, cleanliness, and whiteness:

Visual cues: 

Linen tends to take on a naturally pale, white color when bleached, and this visual cue was attached to ideas of cleanliness, divinity, and righteousness.

Sacred use:

 In Ancient Egypt, linen was used for temple cloths, mummification, and priestly garments. As cleanliness was part of ritual and devotion, linen was seen as pure enough to serve the gods.

Biblical tradition: 

In Judeo-Christianity, priests were commanded to wear linen for certain holy rituals. Biblical scripture makes many references to linen garments as representations of purity, holiness, or heavenly attire.

Religious art: 

Medieval Christian Europe used linen in altars, vestments, and burial shrouds. In art, saints are often depicted in linen robes as a sign of piety.

Art and literature also often use white linen garments as visual shorthand for truth, purity, innocence, spiritual transcendence, or ascetic self-discipline. Over time, these practical and symbolic threads have intertwined to form linen’s reputation as a fabric of physical and spiritual cleanliness.

3. Why Did Linen Fall Out of Favor During the Industrial Revolution?

Linen’s decline as a popular fabric in the industrial era (late 18th and 19th century) can be attributed to a combination of technological factors and market forces:

Flax is difficult to mechanize: 

Flax fibers are longer and stiffer than cotton, making them harder to process with early spinning and weaving machines. Linen processing remained labor-intensive and comparatively slow. 

Boom of cotton: 

Cotton was easier to cultivate on a large scale with slave labor in the American South and colonial India. Cotton fiber could be spun on machines, leading to exponential growth of output and affordability.

Lower cost: 

Cheaper to produce and more versatile, cotton was preferred by manufacturers and consumers for ready-made clothes and household textiles.

Shifts in fashion:

Cotton was softer, took dyes better, and lent itself to more varied designs. As fashion became more diverse, cotton was in greater demand.

So while linen has not completely vanished from the textile landscape, it shrank to a smaller market share used in luxury or specialized applications rather than a mass-produced everyday fabric.

4. What Makes Linen Relevant in Modern Fashion Again?

Several aesthetic, ethical, and technological factors have rekindled the modern love affair with linen.

Here’s why linen is relevant in the 21st century:

Sustainability: 

Linen is one of the most sustainable natural fibers in existence. Requiring less water, pesticide, and energy, it has a minimal environmental footprint and is biodegradable.

Natural, timeless aesthetic:

 Linen is on-trend with minimalism, coastal, wabi-sabi, Scandinavian, and other simple aesthetics. The soft creases and matte natural sheen are valued as authentic.

Climate:

 Linen’s breathability and moisture-wicking make it ideally suited to a warming global climate.

New softening technology: 

Enzyme-washing, stone-washing, blending with cotton or Tencel have made linen softer and easier to maintain than ever before.

Designer support: 

Large and small brands such as Eileen Fisher, Ralph Lauren, Reformation, Muji are launching linen collections to meet the demand of eco-conscious consumers.

In summary, linen has re-entered the modern mainstream as it meets the values and needs of the 21st century. It is more sustainable, soft, versatile, and accessible than ever before.

5. Is Linen Considered a Luxury Fabric Today? 

Yes, but with some caveats. Linen walks the line between an accessible and everyday fabric versus a luxurious and indulgent fabric.

Luxury linen might include: 

Handwoven, handspun linen 

Designer linen garments, bedding, home textiles 

Expensive or artisan-made products with sustainable sourcing 

Mid-range and mass-market linen: 

Available from big-box retailers (H&M Conscious, Zara Home, Uniqlo)

Blended with cotton or rayon to improve softness and cost

Used for everyday casual wear, home textiles, etc.

In short, linen still has luxury connotations for its heritage and beauty but is no longer only for the elite and wealthy. Growing demand means more price points and more accessible options without sacrificing quality.

XII. Final Thoughts 

Brief Summary of Linen’s History Journey 

From prehistory to Ancient Egypt, to medieval Europe, to colonialism, to industrialization, to modern resurgence—linen has not just survived but thrived. Through every wave of human progress and setback, this natural fabric has reflected the times and people who have clothed themselves in it.

The story of linen is the story of humans—warriors and weavers, peasants and pharaohs, saints and artists. Linen has seen more than most fabrics—it has felt the pulse of society and its people change. From humble threads of prehistory to global fashion fabric of today, it has adapted, endured, and inspired.

Reflection on the Resilience and Timelessness of Linen

Linen has proved itself as one of the most versatile, adaptive, and relevant fabrics of all time. Despite being outcompeted by cotton in the 19th century and synthetics in the 20th, it never truly died out. It persisted in niche applications, quiet periods of innovation, and simply waiting for history to catch up.

Linen is having a second act—and a third—thanks to its ageless beauty and surprising modernity. With renewed appreciation for craftsmanship, ethics, and sustainability, the natural, strong, silky soft fabric of linen speaks more loudly to the world than ever before.

In a disposable and synthetic world, linen asks us to slow down and take a closer look. It is as relevant today as ever because we never left it—it was simply waiting for us to come home.

Call to Action for the Reader to Value Linen Beyond Fashion but for Sustainability and Culture

When you touch a piece of linen fabric, you are touching thousands of years of human history. When you wear linen, sleep on linen, or create with linen, you are not just a consumer of style or luxury items—you are a carrier of culture.

Linen is not just about how it looks or how it feels. 

Linen represents: 

Care for the planet: 

Sustainable, low-impact farming and processing 

Attention to craft and detail:

 Long tradition of skill and patience 

Quality over quantity: 

Choosing to live with durable, natural materials 

Honoring our past:

 Remembering the artisans, farmers, and communities that have produced linen throughout human history

Linen is a bridge from ancient times to today’s future. Let us celebrate and continue the global, cultural story of linen by valuing it as a unique heritage fabric for this generation and the next.

Designer Spotlight 16: 

Linen Revival with Mason Milo | The Linen Book

As we look to the future, what could linen’s next chapter look like? For modern designer and textile enthusiast Mason Milo, it is one of rediscovery and revolution. Mason Milo is a contemporary linen-centric clothing brand based in New York City but with a truly global outlook.

Who is Mason Milo? 

Mason Milo is a designer that was inspired to work with linen after visiting a friend who had opened a boutique linen store in Istanbul. Finding no ready-made shirts of a style and quality they liked, Mason Milo began developing their own collection and releasing it in limited runs.

Mason Milo’s first collection was well-received, garnering support from publications and stylists. Mason Milo designs in small runs and makes custom pieces on-demand.

Approach to design: 

Nature-inspired neutral color palette 

Classic, simple cuts (striped shirt, tunic, wrap vest, poncho, overshirt)

Slim to medium fit 

Raw hems and side-seams; asymmetrical, split, or halter necklines

Hand-crafted: 

Mason Milo collaborates with a network of independent artisans around the world to create each piece by hand, from weaving to dyeing to sewing.

Unique patterns, weaves, and materials: 

Hand-dyed with natural pigments and indigo 

Hand-spun, hand-woven linens; cotton-linen blends 

Mason Milo’s goal is to make linen shirts the “uniform of the 21st century”—high-quality, durable, made ethically and sustainably, with a timeless aesthetic. Mason Milo’s ultimate dream is to make linen the world’s number one textile again.

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About this linen sourcebook 

THE LINEN BOOK is an educational journey, taking you through time, place, and across cultures to understand more about one of the oldest and most versatile fabrics in the world.

At The Linen Book we believe that by learning more about this special fabric, we can help our readers make more informed and ethical choices in fashion and textiles.

We’ve created this resource with a dual purpose in mind:

Provide a valuable reference on linen that’s accurate and accessible to anyone

Source the best, newest, most reliable linen articles for regular updates

Each section of this site is designed to fill a void in the information and resources about linen currently available online. By exploring linen as a whole, from its properties to its global past and present, The Linen Book hopes to be a helpful and holistic resource for curious readers.

References in this page 

Fustat was one of the largest medieval textile and trading centers in the world at its peak. A Cairo suburb, it contained approximately 100 textile districts with workshops and goods from all over the globe being stored and produced there, resulting in fustat fabric being a generic name for “mercer’s cloth.” Many of the earliest surviving European textiles were found there.

Fustat was destroyed in 1168 by invading forces led by Nur ad-Din. https://www.britannica.com/place/Fustat 

In simple terms, polychrome sculpture is “a style of sculpture or pottery in which figures or designs are painted in a number of colors.” Often found in the decoration of figures, furniture, buildings, and pottery, and used in combination with other techniques like gold-leafing, inlaying, gilding, etc.

Polychrome, in artistic styles (painting, architecture, sculpture, pottery), typically uses primary colors, but may be extended to secondary or tertiary colors:

https://www.britannica.com/art/polychrome-art

For St. Augustine, holy books and learning were important symbols of his life and work. Images, icons, and images of other Christian holy books, such as The Bible (the Christian Old and New Testament) also sometimes feature St. Augustine in an identifiable way, whether he appears in the illustration itself or adorns the cover. In this sculpture, his close association with books is one of his main identifiers.

It was painted by “Spanish School,” a generic term used to identify art of a Spanish style but unknown or unattributed authorship. Spanish School, Renaissance, 1513–1543. The Met. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/351561 

Costa Rica was also home to the Boruca people who have a historical tradition of weaving palm fiber, sisal, and cotton into garments. These intricate textiles were handmade by women using ancestral techniques and often featured elaborate motifs, patterns, and symbols. https://www.loretamagazine.com/costa-rica-artisans/ 

Tahitian dancer in silk and feathers Joseph Banks, The Voyage of the Endeavour by James Cook

The fruit of a coffee bush, the cherry is picked when it is a bright red color

Depending on growing region, altitude, variety, time of year, processing, and other conditions, coffee cherries can vary widely in flavor, acidity, bitterness, body, aroma, and taste. Coffee can taste like fruits like berries, apples, citrus, and melons. Coffee can taste like spices like chocolate, cinnamon, nutmeg, or black pepper. Coffee can also taste like florals, nuts, chocolate, or even soil and tar!

Specialty coffee, gourmet coffee, third-wave coffee, direct trade coffee, artisanal coffee all refer to coffee grown, sourced, roasted, and brewed with care to highlight or improve the unique flavor and experience of each coffee bean or harvest. The label or definition of these specialty coffees can vary and are often used interchangeably.

All refer to higher quality, better tasting coffee or higher standards in the supply chain and buying practices. Some third-wave coffee, direct trade coffee, etc. might still be mass-produced, unroasted or unselected coffee, however, or else fine coffee purchased from large coffee producers like Colombia, Brazil, and Vietnam, so the definition can vary.

Revivalists use biblical and early church texts that reference linen as part of their belief system:

 linen as a pure cloth for physical and spiritual hygiene. They practice complete vegetarianism, are strict in their moral code, and linen is an outward reflection of that.

Iconic figures such as Henry David Thoreau were transcendentalists in this period, influenced by their reading of German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder.

Swamiji established the Self-Realization Fellowship in 1920 to spread his teachings. He also built the main temple in Mount Washington, California. (Center for Yoga and Meditation) 

Tj mixed media techniques such as painting and collaging, polychrome sculpture, gilding and inlaying with gold and precious metals, carved relief work, freestanding sculpture, inlaying with precious and semi-precious stones and minerals.

Ancient Egyptians wove linen from flax into everyday clothing and garments for the living and dead. A burial shroud was considered to be one of the most important funerary goods that a person could be buried with, and textiles in general were among the most laborious and precious items produced in Ancient Egypt.

Footwear such as sandals or slippers would be the exception to this. In certain periods of ancient Egyptian history such as the New Kingdom, a woman’s skirt or dress would extend only to her mid-thigh or even knee.

Egyptian hieroglyphics were a sophisticated writing system used by Ancient Egyptians as a means of communication. The word hieroglyphic comes from the Greek words hieros, meaning “sacred,” and glypho, meaning “to carve.” A symbol used in hieroglyphics.

Ancient Egypt trade and communication extended across Northeast Africa, Southern Europe, the Near East, and the Arabian Peninsula. Phoenicians traded with Egypt across the Mediterranean and so had a wide reach in their own networks, which also included parts of North Africa.

Ancient Egyptian textiles often included patterns and color in their design. These were mostly geometric shapes and patterns, such as zigzags, rectangles, circles, stars, and simple lozenges. Some clothing and garments might also be dyed in various colors, such as red, blue, yellow, green. Dark indigo blue-dyed linen was a popular and high-status fabric for clothing and decoration.

Egyptians would have used a variety of natural and local ingredients in the dyes. Red could have been made with ochre, hematite, alder bark, or orchil. Blue from woad, indigo, or orchil. Yellow from weld or myrobalan, etc. 

The Israelites were also called the Hebrews or the Jewish people, and are the descendants of the biblical Hebrews, the biblical Israelites, the ancient Israelites and the ancient Hebrews. Jacob and his son Joseph’s families are considered to be the main progenitors of the Israelites and the Jewish people. (Britannica) 

Yes, a linen weaver in 21st-century Syria. 

A story translated in a Bible where the account of Lazarus being visited by Jesus tells of a linen shroud. “Jesus wept.” From the Gospel of John, 11:35.

As Saint Augustine used books as a symbol of literacy, learning, and religion, he is also often found in scenes, images, and artwork associated with other holy books of religions such as The Bible.

In many of these images, both the book of scriptures and the image of St. Augustine himself are included to signal his importance as a religious leader, convert, and scholar.

From Ingres’s Jacon in Egypt, Jacob in Egypt is St. Augustine as he was sometimes known before he became a priest.

It is sometimes used to differentiate medieval representations of a biblical character (like The Bible ) from modern ones.

Especially since the central characters like Jesus, Joseph, and Mary were from the land we know now as Israel and the surrounding region of the Eastern Mediterranean. And many of these stories were then recounted, recorded, and elaborated on in parts of Europe and Africa.

In Rome, the Christian religion was never outlawed entirely, so there would have always been Jewish people and other converts practicing or worshipping privately. The Jewish community in Rome was dispersed during the early to mid-19th century, but was a center for the Jewish community in Europe from ancient to medieval times.

Christina Rossetti was a member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, a group of 19th-century English poets, writers, painters, and critics founded by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Christina Rossetti’s work often used Biblical imagery and symbolism as well as stories and ideas from Dante, John Bunyan, and other Christian allegories.

Rossetti was Anglican and devout in her faith. Her work in this period and the Pre-Raphaelite style is heavily influenced by her faith and the tenets and texts of the Anglican church.

At the start of the pre-Raphaelite period and Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, brotherhood members included Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Everett Millais, William Holman Hunt, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens, Thomas Woolner. (Britannica) 

Greek Orthodox used the whitest, most pure linen garments and cloths for religious rites, both as a form of “cleansing” or preparation of the priest or participant, and as a visual symbol of purity and godliness.

Swamiji established the Self-Realization Fellowship in 1920 to spread his teachings. He also built the main temple in Mount Washington, California. (Center for Yoga and Meditation) 

Tj mixed media techniques such as painting and collaging, polychrome sculpture, gilding and inlaying with gold and precious metals, carved relief work, freestanding sculpture, inlaying with precious and semi-precious stones and minerals.

Ancient Egyptians wove linen from flax into everyday clothing and garments for the living and dead. A burial shroud was considered to be one of the most important funerary goods that a person could be buried with, and textiles in general were among the most laborious and precious items produced in Ancient Egypt.

Footwear such as sandals or slippers would be the exception to this. In certain periods of ancient Egyptian history such as the New Kingdom, a woman’s skirt or dress would extend only to her mid-thigh or even knee.

Egyptian hieroglyphics were a sophisticated writing system used by Ancient Egyptians as a means of communication. The word hieroglyphic comes from the Greek words hieros, meaning “sacred,” and glypho, meaning “to carve.” A symbol used in hieroglyphics.

Ancient Egypt trade and communication extended across Northeast Africa, Southern Europe, the Near East, and the Arabian Peninsula. Phoenicians traded with Egypt across the Mediterranean and so had a wide reach in their own networks, which also included parts of North Africa.

Ancient Egyptian textiles often included patterns and color in their design. These were mostly geometric shapes and patterns, such as zigzags, rectangles, circles, stars, and simple lozenges. Some clothing and garments might also be dyed in various colors, such as red, blue, yellow, green. Dark indigo blue-dyed linen was a popular and high-status fabric for clothing and decoration.

Egyptians would have used a variety of natural and local ingredients in the dyes. Red could have been made with ochre, hematite, alder bark, or orchil. Blue from woad, indigo, or orchil. Yellow from weld or myrobalan, etc. 

The Israelites were also called the Hebrews or the Jewish people, and are the descendants of the biblical Hebrews, the biblical Israelites, the ancient Israelites and the ancient Hebrews. Jacob and his son Joseph’s families are considered to be the main progenitors of the Israelites and the Jewish people. (Britannica) 

Yes, a linen weaver in 21st-century Syria. 

A story translated in a Bible where the account of Lazarus being visited by Jesus tells of a linen shroud. “Jesus wept.” From the Gospel of John, 11:35.

As Saint Augustine used books as a symbol of literacy, learning, and religion, he is also often found in scenes, images, and artwork associated with other holy books of religions such as The Bible.

In many of these images, both the book of scriptures and the image of St. Augustine himself are included to signal his importance as a religious leader, convert, and scholar.

From Ingres’s Jacon in Egypt, Jacob in Egypt is St. Augustine as he was sometimes known before he became a priest.

It is sometimes used to differentiate medieval representations of a biblical character (like The Bible ) from modern ones.

Especially since the central characters like Jesus, Joseph, and Mary were from the land we know now as Israel and the surrounding region of the Eastern Mediterranean. And many of these stories were then recounted, recorded, and elaborated on in parts of Europe and Africa.

In Rome, the Christian religion was never outlawed entirely, so there would have always been Jewish people and other converts practicing or worshipping privately. The Jewish community in Rome was dispersed during the early to mid-19th century, but was a center for the Jewish community in Europe from ancient to medieval times.

Christina Rossetti was a member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, a group of 19th-century English poets, writers, painters, and critics founded by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Christina Rossetti’s work often used Biblical imagery and symbolism as well as stories and ideas from Dante, John Bunyan, and other Christian allegories.

Rossetti was Anglican and devout in her faith. Her work in this period and the Pre-Raphaelite style is heavily influenced by her faith and the tenets and texts of the Anglican church.

At the start of the pre-Raphaelite period and Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, brotherhood members included Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Everett Millais, William Holman Hunt, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens, Thomas Woolner. (Britannica) 

Greek Orthodox used the whitest, most pure linen garments and cloths for religious rites, both as a form of “cleansing” or preparation of the priest or participant, and as a visual symbol of purity and godliness.

Show References 

Sources in this page 

Was a town in lower ancient Egypt on the Nile river east of modern-day Cairo.

The district was one of the largest textile and trading centers in medieval history, at its peak, and considered the center of international trade in the eastern Mediterranean and near east. Byzantine trade with Islamic regions extended through this area as well.