Introduction
Cotton is ‘the fabric of our lives’, according to one headline — an apt descriptor for one of our most ubiquitous textiles. For centuries, we’ve used cotton for clothing and in countless other applications, from bathing towels to ropes and carpets. In this guide, we’ll unravel the many facets of the fibre that builds much of our modern life, and take a closer look at the complex process of turning a cotton plant seedling into finished cloth.
Importance of Cotton as a Textile Fiber
Cotton has been receiving great deal of admiration for its qualities that make it ideal fibre for fabrics to be worn. Of all fibres, we cannot find better than cotton as it is soft to touch, it absorbs more moisture and is almost unbeatable. The above points show why cotton is preferred most and widely used fibre in textile. These listed points clearly convey the use of cotton as textile.
Soft and Comfy Cotton fibre is soft and comfortable, so cotton fabric is soft and comfortable to wear for quite a while.
Breathability: breathable cotton can allow air to flow unimpeded through the fabric and so is used for warm-weather clothing and sportswear.
Absorbency: Cotton wicks moisture quickly away from the skin, which makes it a good choice for towels, bathrobes and athletic clothes.
Durability: Cotton, despite the softness, is very durable and does not lose the shape and strength when frequent washed and worn.
Multifunctionality: Cotton can be woven into a wide range of fabric types, from very light and airy to very heavy and dense, allowing it to be used in many different applications.
Introduction to the Cotton Manufacturing Process
The process of cotton that makes it possible for humans to get cloth from the fibers is a complex set of steps. Some of those steps help complete the process transforming raw cotton fibers quality into the cloth that we use everyday. The manufacturing process can be defined into several stages including cultivation and harvesting, ginning, spinning, weaving, finishing, quality control, and sustainibility and enviromental impact.
Cultivation and Harvesting
Before we get to fabric, cotton needs to be produced, starting with plants: cotton cultivation takes planning to ensure a healthy crop that supplies top grade material in a timely manner. Growers need to take into consideration soil quality and fertilisation, as well as local climate and water availability, plus an array of pest control devices. Once the plants have grown it’s time to pick them, with options ranging from mechanical picking for large-scale production to hand harvesting for smallholders and specialty crops.
Ginning
Although the cotton plant can be grown almost everywhere, once the cotton is picked, the fibre has to be separated from seeds and other impurities. Therefore a key step in cotton making process is ginning. Ginning determines the quality and purity of the cotton fibre. Different types of ginning machines are available – saw gins and roller gins. Each type of machine has its advantages and disadvantages.
Spinning
Once they are cleaned, the cotton fibres are ‘carded’, or separated from each other to produce a continuous ‘sliver’ of fibres ready for spinning. Spinning twists fibres together to form a continuous length known as ‘yarn’. Many different types of spinning systems can be used – including ring spinning, open-end spinning and rotor spinning – each of which will make a yarn with different strength, fineness and texture.
Weaving
In the final stage, the yarn may be spun to add twist and create a ropelike product that is ready to be woven into fabric. Weaving is a process by which interlacing yarns are used to produce a stable, coherent fabric structure. There are different loom types, which include shuttle, rapier and air jet looms, among others. Weaving processes are used to develop a range of fabric types and structures, from plain weaves to complex patterns and motifs.
Finishing
After the fabric is woven, several finishing processes are used to enhance its appearance, feel and function — including bleaching (to make the fabric whiter), dyeing (to put colour into the fabric), printing (to add patterns and designs) and softening (improves the softness and comfort). Finishing turns the basic product of cotton into the different types of fabrics we use in our clothing and households.
Quality Control
There ae strict quality control and testing of quality parameters to make sure quality and consistency of cotton fabrics . The tests carried out through the manufacturing process are fiber length, strength, colour fasness, quality attributes to ensure the manufactured number of cotton textile are hard wearing, reliable and attractive.
Sustainability and Environmental Considerations
Over the past decades, there has been increasing focus on the environmental impact of cotton cultivation and processing. Subsequently, the industry has implemented more sustainable methods for cotton production and manufacturing. Efforts include organic cultivation practices, drip irrigation and water harvesting, waste reduction, and more. The textile industry has increased its investments in sustainability, and this is an ongoing effort. The industry also has challenges that it has to address, such as pesticide use, water contamination, and soil depletion, to name a few. Sustainability and environmental issues will become increasingly important in the production of cotton. Greater attention is being devoted to the environmental impact of cotton cultivation and manufacturing. The textile industry is seeking better practices for reducing the ecological footprint of its main source of fibre. In this guide, we will explore sustainability issues in cotton production, and look at the sustainable solutions to these challenges, and initiatives to further advance the development of environmentally responsible cotton production.
Overview of Sustainability in Cotton Production
‘Sustainable’ in this context covers a wide range of topics such as its environmental sustainability, social sustainability and economic sustainability. Sustainable production means that cotton production causes the least environmental harm by minimising energy consumption, waste-generation, water use, greenhouse gas emissions, and soil degradation; while maximising resource efficiency including energy, water and soil. It also means that the cotton industry contributes to the promotion of fair employment practices, decent work and the economic prosperity of the communities that host cotton crops. Through sustainability, the cotton value chain can minimise the adverse impact of cotton production on the natural environment and people; while maximising the benefits to all the relevant stakeholders from production to consumption all the way to disposal.
Environmental Challenges in Conventional Cotton Cultivation
Old-style cotton production plays host to a number of environmental issues, each with its own ecosystem and human health implications:
1. Pesticide use: Cotton is heavily treated with synthetic pesticides and insecticides to control pests and diseases, leading to run-off, chemical-contaminated soil and ecosystems, and killing beneficial organisms.
2. Requires large amounts of irrigation water for production; large-scale irrigation of cotton has been associated with depletion of freshwater sources and with exacerbating water scarcity and drought conditions in water-stressed areas.
3. Soil Degradation Intensive cropping practices (eg, monocropping, mechanical tillage, chemical inputs) can decrease soil quality, nutrient availability, and cause increased risk of soil erosion and desertification.
4. Genetic Modification: By far the most important agricultural technology is the widespread adoption of genetically modified (GM) cotton varieties. These are considered to contribute significantly to biodiversity loss, to weed species via gene flow from cotton to wild relatives and to herbicide-resistant weeds.
Cotton production using conventional farming practices has long been associated with health and environmental risks, posing major threats for the integrity of ecosystems, biodiversity and human health. We will examine in detail the environmental issues linked to the production of cotton using conventional farming practices, explore the environmental and societal implications, and highlight preventative measures to minimise their impacts.
Overview of Conventional Cotton Cultivation
In conventional cotton production, the cotton is grown using conventional agriculture methods that use synthetic inputs, including pesticides, fertiliser and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Though conventional cotton farming has increased cotton output and reduced production costs, it has also caused a host of issues surrounding ecosystem and community health, and the viability for cotton production in the future.
Pesticide Use and Environmental Contamination
The massive spraying of cotton crops with synthetic pesticides and insecticides is among the biggest environmental and human health problems with conventional cotton production. Cotton is susceptible to a variety of pests and diseases such as boll weevils, aphids and cotton leafworm, which, if left untreated, can reduce yields substantially. To control pest outbreaks, farmers often choose to use chemical pesticides, which can potentially harm non-target animals, soil health and water quality.
Impact on Biodiversity
The extensive usage of chemical pesticides in conventional cotton farming is not environmental-friendly. This practice adversely affects biodiversity in the long term. Beneficial insects and pollinators are the main victims of pesticides. When we spray harmful or lethal pesticides on a field, natural predators and pollinators are killed, eventually leading to an increase in pests, fewer natural predators, harmful ecological change, poor yields and decrease in biodiversity in the agricultural landscape. Pesticide runoff from cotton fields also can contaminate water bodies such as lakes, rivers and oceans, in turn affecting aquatic organisms including sealife and disrupting aquatic ecological systems.
Soil and Water Contamination
In addition to the direct harm they cause to non-target living organisms, the chemical pesticides used in conventional cotton production can contaminate soil and water over the long-term, leading to environmental degradation and health impacts to both humans and wildlife. For example, pesticide residues can persist in both surface and ground water for extended periods, carrying cumulative risks to ecosystems and human health. Pesticide run-off from cotton fields can also contaminate surface waters and can leach into aquifers, subsequently contaminating drinking water supplies. If left untreated, run-off can impact the chemical composition of streams, rivers and lakes, leading to declines in biodiversity and harmful effects on aquatic ecosystems.
Water Consumption and Irrigation Practices
A water-intensive crop, cotton requires large volumes of irrigation water for growth and development, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. Conventional cotton cultivation is often characterised by the inefficient use of irrigation water, whether through flood irrigation and overhead sprinklers, or unchecked leaching and percolation. This inefficient use of irrigation in cotton cultivation can result in a waste of water, as well as soil erosion and waterlogging. High water use in cotton cultivation for fibre and textile products can worsen water scarcity and reduce availability of freshwater sources in water-stressed areas, leading to further degradation of the environment.
Impact on Water Resources
Intensive cotton irrigation can produce local impacts on water systems, especially in environments with high water scarcity. Excessive water extraction for cotton irrigation leads to groundwater depletion and degradation of aquifers as well as lowering of groundwater levels and deterioration of aquatic habitats. Consequently, it will reduce the amount of water for people and other sectors, cause local water scarcity, and bring conflicts of water usage. Besides this, in the process of intensive irrigation practices, if there are irrigation misuses, such as poor irrigation management, overirrigation, improper timing of irrigation and drainage, it will lead to increased water waste, waterlogging and salinisation of soils. All these problems can increase overall environmental burdens to earth system and degrade the agro-ecosystem’s sustainability.
Soil Erosion and Degradation
And while cultivating cotton conventionally might alleviate hunger and poverty, the use of practices such as intensive tillage, monocropping and chemical inputs (fertiliser, pesticides) can also impair soil health, fertility and resilience, contributing to soil erosion: continuous cotton cultivation in monocropping systems can lead to nutrient depletion, alter soil structure, increase soil incorporation by tillage operations, and thereby increase the risk of soil loss, especially during heavy rainfall, or wind erosion episodes. In this way, soil particles are taken away from the field at the source of production, leading to a loss of topsoil and a decrease in water infiltration and in agricultural productivity. Moreover, chemical fertilisers and pesticides used in the production of cotton further degrade soil quality by directly killing soil biological communities, and by altering soil microbiota, thus contributing to soil degradation and erosion.
Genetic Modification and Biodiversity Loss
GM cotton has experienced a remarkable degree of adoption … [but] the question arises of whether the biodiversity loss, the gene flow to wild relatives, and the emergence of weeds resistant to chemicals might represent biophysical tradeoffs of the large-scale adoption of GM cotton varieties such as Bt. Bt alters the biodiversity of the landscape through the spread of engineered plants. Photo courtesy the authorGM cotton is a genetically modified (GM) cotton variety engineered to produce one or more insecticidal proteins (from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis) that kill target pests such as lepidopteran (butterfly/moth) larvae and some species of beetles. By killing target pests expressing certain characteristics in GM cotton, it becomes less necessary to apply chemical pesticides and easier than it would be otherwise to manage the pests in cotton crops. But this genetically modified aspect of cotton cultivation can affect biodiversity, resilience of ecosystems, and resilience of cotton-growing agroecosystems in unintended ways.
Impact on Non-Target Organisms
Bt cotton plants are genetically modified to express Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal toxin proteins and are a clear example of an impact of GM on non-target species, like beneficial insects, pollinators and soil organisms. While Bt cotton is designed to kill pests that focus on bollworms and caterpillars, its effects extend to non-target insects, such as bees, butterflies and natural pests, and disrupt the balance of ecological goods and biodiversity within agricultural landscapes. In addition, residues of Bt toxins released from the plants can remain in soil and water, posing risks to non-target major and minor organisms as well as to ecosystem health.
Herbicide Resistance and Weed Management
Widespread adoption of GM cotton cultivars designed for herbicide tolerance caused rapid evolution of weeds to be resistant to herbicide, exacerbating weed management challenges for farmers as well as for the crop itself. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth and glyphosate-resistant waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus) are two particularly concerning herbicide-resistant weed species. Herbicide-resistant weeds rapidly evolve to endure repeated applications of herbicide, which eliminates the extremely potent weed control, greatly increases reliance on chemical herbicide control to effectively farm cotton, and may encourage farmers to use even more intensive herbicide use, exacerbating environmental contamination, weed resistance, and ecological risk in cotton production farming systems.
Climate Change and Environmental Vulnerability
Climate change imperils cotton cultivation. Hotter temperatures, altered precipitation patterns and extreme weather events each threatens crop growth, development and yield. Climate change will amplify existing environmental stresses of cotton farming, such as water scarcity, soil degradation and pest outbreaks, and introduce new risks and uncertainties for farmers and ecosystems. Conventional cotton presents significant environmental problems.
Sustainable Practices in Cotton Cultivation
Organic and regenerative farming methods are gaining traction to tackle these environmental challenges and to deliver cotton in ways that give back to the environment and support healthy ecosystems. Some of the most prevalent sustainable practices for cotton are:
Organic Farming: Organic cotton vs. conventional farming should be favoured as it outlaws synthetic pesticides, fertilisers and GMOs, encouraging biodiversity, soil health and ecosystem balance. 1.
2. Water Conservation: By using sustainable water management methods (eg, drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and soil moisture monitoring), cotton farmers can use less water, experience less runoff, and create more efficient irrigation on their cotton farms.
3. Soil Health Conservation tillage or non-tillage systems, coupled with the use of cover crops, crop rotation, and organic amendments, can improve soil health and fertility, crop productivity, water infiltration and rainfall storage, and reduce runoff and sedimentation through improved soil aggregation and tilth, and greater carbon sequestration in soils.
4. Integrated Pest Management (IPM): integrated pest management strategies that involve biological, cultural and chemical control strategies to suppress pests and disease, reduce dependence on synthetic pesticides, and protect natural enemies of pests.
5. Biodiversity Conservation: Hedgerows, buffer strips and flowering cover crops offer habitat for non-target arthropods, pollinators and wildlife, thus helping to increase the biodiversity and ecological health of cotton farms.
The Cotton Manufacturing Process: From Field to Fabric
Introduction
Cotton is ‘the fabric of our lives’, according to one headline — an apt descriptor for one of our most ubiquitous textiles. For centuries, we’ve used cotton for clothing and in countless other applications, from bathing towels to ropes and carpets. In this guide, we’ll unravel the many facets of the fibre that builds much of our modern life, and take a closer look at the complex process of turning a cotton plant seedling into finished cloth.
Importance of Cotton as a Textile Fiber
Cotton has been receiving great deal of admiration for its qualities that make it ideal fibre for fabrics to be worn. Of all fibres, we cannot find better than cotton as it is soft to touch, it absorbs more moisture and is almost unbeatable. The above points show why cotton is preferred most and widely used fibre in textile. These listed points clearly convey the use of cotton as textile.
Soft and Comfy Cotton fibre is soft and comfortable, so cotton fabric is soft and comfortable to wear for quite a while.
Breathability: breathable cotton can allow air to flow unimpeded through the fabric and so is used for warm-weather clothing and sportswear.
Absorbency: Cotton wicks moisture quickly away from the skin, which makes it a good choice for towels, bathrobes and athletic clothes.
Durability: Cotton, despite the softness, is very durable and does not lose the shape and strength when frequent washed and worn.
Multifunctionality: Cotton can be woven into a wide range of fabric types, from very light and airy to very heavy and dense, allowing it to be used in many different applications.
Introduction to the Cotton Manufacturing Process
The process of cotton that makes it possible for humans to get cloth from the fibers is a complex set of steps. Some of those steps help complete the process transforming raw cotton fibers into the cloth that we use everyday. The manufacturing process can be defined into several stages including cultivation and harvesting, ginning, spinning, weaving, finishing, quality control, and sustainibility and enviromental impact.
Cultivation and Harvesting
Before we get to fabric, cotton needs to be produced, starting with plants: cotton cultivation takes planning to ensure a healthy crop that supplies top grade material in a timely manner. Growers need to take into consideration soil quality and fertilisation, as well as local climate and water availability, plus an array of pest control devices. Once the plants have grown it’s time to pick them, with options ranging from mechanical picking for large-scale production to hand harvesting for smallholders and specialty crops.
Ginning
Although the cotton plant can be grown almost everywhere, once the cotton is picked, the fibre has to be separated from seeds and other impurities. Therefore a key step in cotton making process is ginning. Ginning determines the quality and purity of the cotton fibre. Different types of ginning machines are available – saw gins and roller gins. Each type of machine has its advantages and disadvantages.
Spinning
Once they are cleaned, the cotton fibres are ‘carded’, or separated from each other to produce a continuous ‘sliver’ of fibres ready for spinning. Spinning twists fibres together to form a continuous length known as ‘yarn’. Many different types of spinning systems can be used – including ring spinning, open-end spinning and rotor spinning – each of which will make a yarn with different strength, fineness and texture.
Weaving
In the final stage, the yarn may be spun to add twist and create a ropelike product that is ready to be woven into fabric. Weaving is a process by which interlacing yarns are used to produce a stable, coherent fabric structure. There are different loom types, which include shuttle, rapier and air jet looms, among others. Weaving processes are used to develop a range of fabric types and structures, from plain weaves to complex patterns and motifs.
Finishing
After the fabric is woven, several finishing processes are used to enhance its appearance, feel and function — including bleaching (to make the fabric whiter), dyeing (to put colour into the fabric), printing (to add patterns and designs) and softening (improves the softness and comfort). Finishing turns the basic product of cotton into the different types of fabrics we use in our clothing and households.
Quality Control
There ae strict quality control and testing of quality parameters to make sure quality and consistency of cotton fabrics . The tests carried out through the manufacturing process are fiber length, strength, colour fasness, quality attributes to ensure the manufactured number of cotton textile are hard wearing, reliable and attractive.
Sustainability and Environmental Considerations
Over the past decades, there has been increasing focus on the environmental impact of cotton cultivation and processing. Subsequently, the industry has implemented more sustainable methods for cotton production and manufacturing. Efforts include organic cultivation practices, drip irrigation and water harvesting, waste reduction, and more. The textile industry has increased its investments in sustainability, and this is an ongoing effort. The industry also has challenges that it has to address, such as pesticide use, water contamination, and soil depletion, to name a few. Sustainability and environmental issues will become increasingly important in the production of cotton. Greater attention is being devoted to the environmental impact of cotton cultivation and manufacturing. The textile industry is seeking better practices for reducing the ecological footprint of its main source of fibre. In this guide, we will explore sustainability issues in cotton production, and look at the sustainable solutions to these challenges, and initiatives to further advance the development of environmentally responsible cotton production.
Overview of Sustainability in Cotton Production
‘Sustainable’ in this context covers a wide range of topics such as its environmental sustainability, social sustainability and economic sustainability. Sustainable production means that cotton production causes the least environmental harm by minimising energy consumption, waste-generation, water use, greenhouse gas emissions, and soil degradation; while maximising resource efficiency including energy, water and soil. It also means that the cotton industry contributes to the promotion of fair employment practices, decent work and the economic prosperity of the communities that host cotton crops. Through sustainability, the cotton value chain can minimise the adverse impact of cotton production on the natural environment and people; while maximising the benefits to all the relevant stakeholders from production to consumption all the way to disposal.
Environmental Challenges in Conventional Cotton Cultivation
Old-style cotton production plays host to a number of environmental issues, each with its own ecosystem and human health implications:
1. Pesticide use: Cotton is heavily treated with synthetic pesticides and insecticides to control pests and diseases, leading to run-off, chemical-contaminated soil and ecosystems, and killing beneficial organisms.
2. Requires large amounts of irrigation water for production; large-scale irrigation of cotton has been associated with depletion of freshwater sources and with exacerbating water scarcity and drought conditions in water-stressed areas.
3. Soil Degradation Intensive cropping practices (eg, monocropping, mechanical tillage, chemical inputs) can decrease soil quality, nutrient availability, and cause increased risk of soil erosion and desertification.
4. Genetic Modification: By far the most important agricultural technology is the widespread adoption of genetically modified (GM) cotton varieties. These are considered to contribute significantly to biodiversity loss, to weed species via gene flow from cotton to wild relatives and to herbicide-resistant weeds.
Cotton production using conventional farming practices has long been associated with health and environmental risks, posing major threats for the integrity of ecosystems, biodiversity and human health. We will examine in detail the environmental issues linked to the production of cotton using conventional farming practices, explore the environmental and societal implications, and highlight preventative measures to minimise their impacts.
Overview of Conventional Cotton Cultivation
In conventional cotton production, the cotton is grown using conventional agriculture methods that use synthetic inputs, including pesticides, fertiliser and genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Though conventional cotton farming has increased cotton output and reduced production costs, it has also caused a host of issues surrounding ecosystem and community health, and the viability for cotton production in the future.
Pesticide Use and Environmental Contamination
The massive spraying of cotton crops with synthetic pesticides and insecticides is among the biggest environmental and human health problems with conventional cotton production. Cotton is susceptible to a variety of pests and diseases such as boll weevils, aphids and cotton leafworm, which, if left untreated, can reduce yields substantially. To control pest outbreaks, farmers often choose to use chemical pesticides, which can potentially harm non-target animals, soil health and water quality.
Impact on Biodiversity
The extensive usage of chemical pesticides in conventional cotton farming is not environmental-friendly. This practice adversely affects biodiversity in the long term. Beneficial insects and pollinators are the main victims of pesticides. When we spray harmful or lethal pesticides on a field, natural predators and pollinators are killed, eventually leading to an increase in pests, fewer natural predators, harmful ecological change, poor yields and decrease in biodiversity in the agricultural landscape. Pesticide runoff from cotton fields also can contaminate water bodies such as lakes, rivers and oceans, in turn affecting aquatic organisms including sealife and disrupting aquatic ecological systems.
Soil and Water Contamination
In addition to the direct harm they cause to non-target living organisms, the chemical pesticides used in conventional cotton production can contaminate soil and water over the long-term, leading to environmental degradation and health impacts to both humans and wildlife. For example, pesticide residues can persist in both surface and ground water for extended periods, carrying cumulative risks to ecosystems and human health. Pesticide run-off from cotton fields can also contaminate surface waters and can leach into aquifers, subsequently contaminating drinking water supplies. If left untreated, run-off can impact the chemical composition of streams, rivers and lakes, leading to declines in biodiversity and harmful effects on aquatic ecosystems.
Water Consumption and Irrigation Practices
A water-intensive crop, cotton requires large volumes of irrigation water for growth and development, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. Conventional cotton cultivation is often characterised by the inefficient use of irrigation water, whether through flood irrigation and overhead sprinklers, or unchecked leaching and percolation. This inefficient use of irrigation in cotton cultivation can result in a waste of water, as well as soil erosion and waterlogging. High water use in cotton cultivation for fibre and textile products can worsen water scarcity and reduce availability of freshwater sources in water-stressed areas, leading to further degradation of the environment.
Impact on Water Resources
Intensive cotton irrigation can produce local impacts on water systems, especially in environments with high water scarcity. Excessive water extraction for cotton irrigation leads to groundwater depletion and degradation of aquifers as well as lowering of groundwater levels and deterioration of aquatic habitats. Consequently, it will reduce the amount of water for people and other sectors, cause local water scarcity, and bring conflicts of water usage. Besides this, in the process of intensive irrigation practices, if there are irrigation misuses, such as poor irrigation management, overirrigation, improper timing of irrigation and drainage, it will lead to increased water waste, waterlogging and salinisation of soils. All these problems can increase overall environmental burdens to earth system and degrade the agro-ecosystem’s sustainability.
Soil Erosion and Degradation
And while cultivating cotton conventionally might alleviate hunger and poverty, the use of practices such as intensive tillage, monocropping and chemical inputs (fertiliser, pesticides) can also impair soil health, fertility and resilience, contributing to soil erosion: continuous cotton cultivation in monocropping systems can lead to nutrient depletion, alter soil structure, increase soil incorporation by tillage operations, and thereby increase the risk of soil loss, especially during heavy rainfall, or wind erosion episodes. In this way, soil particles are taken away from the field at the source of production, leading to a loss of topsoil and a decrease in water infiltration and in agricultural productivity. Moreover, chemical fertilisers and pesticides used in the production of cotton further degrade soil quality by directly killing soil biological communities, and by altering soil microbiota, thus contributing to soil degradation and erosion.
Genetic Modification and Biodiversity Loss
GM cotton has experienced a remarkable degree of adoption … [but] the question arises of whether the biodiversity loss, the gene flow to wild relatives, and the emergence of weeds resistant to chemicals might represent biophysical tradeoffs of the large-scale adoption of GM cotton varieties such as Bt. Bt alters the biodiversity of the landscape through the spread of engineered plants. Photo courtesy the authorGM cotton is a genetically modified (GM) cotton variety engineered to produce one or more insecticidal proteins (from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis) that kill target pests such as lepidopteran (butterfly/moth) larvae and some species of beetles. By killing target pests expressing certain characteristics in GM cotton, it becomes less necessary to apply chemical pesticides and easier than it would be otherwise to manage the pests in cotton crops. But this genetically modified aspect of cotton cultivation can affect biodiversity, resilience of ecosystems, and resilience of cotton-growing agroecosystems in unintended ways.
Impact on Non-Target Organisms
Bt cotton plants are genetically modified to express Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticidal toxin proteins and are a clear example of an impact of GM on non-target species, like beneficial insects, pollinators and soil organisms. While Bt cotton is designed to kill pests that focus on bollworms and caterpillars, its effects extend to non-target insects, such as bees, butterflies and natural pests, and disrupt the balance of ecological goods and biodiversity within agricultural landscapes. In addition, residues of Bt toxins released from the plants can remain in soil and water, posing risks to non-target major and minor organisms as well as to ecosystem health.
Herbicide Resistance and Weed Management
Widespread adoption of GM cotton cultivars designed for herbicide tolerance caused rapid evolution of weeds to be resistant to herbicide, exacerbating weed management challenges for farmers as well as for the crop itself. Glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth and glyphosate-resistant waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus) are two particularly concerning herbicide-resistant weed species. Herbicide-resistant weeds rapidly evolve to endure repeated applications of herbicide, which eliminates the extremely potent weed control, greatly increases reliance on chemical herbicide control to effectively farm cotton, and may encourage farmers to use even more intensive herbicide use, exacerbating environmental contamination, weed resistance, and ecological risk in cotton production farming systems.
Climate Change and Environmental Vulnerability
Climate change imperils cotton cultivation. Hotter temperatures, altered precipitation patterns and extreme weather events each threatens crop growth, development and yield. Climate change will amplify existing environmental stresses of cotton farming, such as water scarcity, soil degradation and pest outbreaks, and introduce new risks and uncertainties for farmers and ecosystems. Conventional cotton presents significant environmental problems.
Sustainable Practices in Cotton Cultivation
Organic and regenerative farming methods are gaining traction to tackle these environmental challenges and to deliver cotton in ways that give back to the environment and support healthy ecosystems. Some of the most prevalent sustainable practices for cotton are:
Organic Farming: Organic farming should be favoured as it outlaws synthetic pesticides, fertilisers and GMOs, encouraging biodiversity, soil health and ecosystem balance. 1.
2. Water Conservation: By using sustainable water management methods (eg, drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and soil moisture monitoring), cotton farmers can use less water, experience less runoff, and create more efficient irrigation on their cotton farms.
3. Soil Health Conservation tillage or non-tillage systems, coupled with the use of cover crops, crop rotation, and organic amendments, can improve soil health and fertility, crop productivity, water infiltration and rainfall storage, and reduce runoff and sedimentation through improved soil aggregation and tilth, and greater carbon sequestration in soils.
4. Integrated Pest Management (IPM): integrated pest management strategies that involve biological, cultural and chemical control strategies to suppress pests and disease, reduce dependence on synthetic pesticides, and protect natural enemies of pests.
5. Biodiversity Conservation: Hedgerows, buffer strips and flowering cover crops offer habitat for non-target arthropods, pollinators and wildlife, thus helping to increase the biodiversity and ecological health of cotton farms.
Certification and Standards
Several sustainability certification schemes and standards that evaluate and verify the sustainability performance of cotton producers and supply chains have been developed:
1. Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS): Organic cotton must be grown and processed according to stringent environmental and social standards (such as bans on the use of GMOs and through the use of hazardous chemicals).
2. Better Cotton Initiative (BCI): BCI is an example of a multi-stakeholder association that promotes the uptake of better practices in cotton production (from management of water to integrated pest management) while supporting farmers in strengthening the sustainability of their practices.
3. Fairtrade Cotton: Cotton farmers receive a fair price for their produce, and the growers are committed to fulfil basic social and labour rights cotton fabric of garment-workers, and are required to invest in a ‘premium’ of 0.01 per cent of the export price on community development projects that are democratically planned and carried out by workers and their cooperatives, including anti-slavery or education initiatives.
4. Regenerative Organic Certification (ROC): ROC supplements organic standards with additional criteria that ensure soil health, carbon sequestration and holistic land management based on practices that regenerate ecosystems, enhance biodiversity and address climate change.
Innovations and Technologies
Technological improvements and innovation promote sustainability as well. Advances in precision agriculture, remote sensing, biotechnology and genetic engineering, are all contributing to reduce the environmental footprint of cotton farming systems, increasing resource use efficiency, improving adoption of conservation agriculture practices, and making the cotton and textiles industry more resilient.
1. Precision Agriculture: Smart tools such as GPS-guided tractors, drones and soil sensors can help farmers apply fertilisers better, precisely track crop health, and target inoculants and pesticides where needed to help farmers reduce waste and increase yields.
2. Biotechnology: Insect-resistant and drought-tolerant cotton, known as biotech traits, have reduced pesticide applications by 68 per cent and irrigation needs by 29 per cent in leading biotech cotton countries. This has improved pest management and water use efficiency in cotton farming.
3. Biological Control: Biopesticides, pheromone traps and beneficial insects are alternatives to synthetic pesticides that suppress pest populations while instigating less damage to predatory or non-target organisms and the environment.
4. Nanotechnology: Nanomaterials such as nanofertilisers and nanopesticides could improve the uptake of nutrients, boost crop resilience, and reduce contamination of the environment in cotton agriculture.
Challenges and Opportunities
While sustainability of cotton saving systems has improved, a number of issues remain: • • • © 2014 The Black Dog Publishing Limited C1478LEDITIONText MacAuto Create 9/11/14 9:07 AM Page 153Copyright © 2014
1 Smallholder Engagement: Many non-industrial cotton farmers, especially in developing countries, are disconnected from resources including information and institutions.
2. Small consumer awareness and demand: consumer awareness and demand for sustainable cotton products inhibit the uptake of sustainable cotton farming practices.
3. Policy Support:Insufficient government policies, subsidies and incentives hinder efforts to make cotton come from sustainable practices and encourage a shift to more environmentally friendly cotton There you have it. You can complete the rest of the offer.
And therefore our overall conclusion is that the continuous journey of cotton beginning from the field to the clothes is a quite complex process in which multiple stages of cultivation, harvesting, processing and finishing have been performed in order to bring softness, durability and versatility in our day todays textiles. By educating ourselves with the brief about the cotton manufacturing process and by taking steps to encourage sustainable practices, we further ensure the availability of cotton fabrics of unmatched quality with minimal threats to ecological footprints and maintaining the strong sense of ethical production practices.
